Triumph of Galatea, circa 1512, Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Raphael), Villa Farnesina, Rome. Source: Getty Images.
Imagine in 1510 that you travel across the Tiber River to the opposite side of papal Rome. Agostino Chigi, the richest man in Europe, has invited you to enter his unique suburban dwelling known today as the Villa Farnesina.
Inside, you enter the hall known as the Loggia of Galatea. The wealthy banker Chigi intended this space to not only revive the lifestyle of the ancient Romans but also display his magnificent spirit.
Known as ‘Il Magnifico’ by his contemporaries, Chigi was an extravagant host who dazzled the nobility and literary of Rome with luxurious banquets set within the imaginative loggia. Modeled after the suburban villas of antiquity, the open design of the Loggia of Galatea conveyed a spiritual realm situated outside that of the Christian paradigm.
The frescoes adorning the loggia likewise manifest a Neo-Platonic philosophy rather than Catholic. In particular, Sebastiano del Piombo’s Polyphemus and Raphael’s Triumph of Galatea evoked the very subject matter of Neo-Platonic love. At the same time, the astrological ceiling by Baldassare Peruzzi implied Chigi’s destiny for magnificence.
Renaissance interests in antiquity, mythology, and astrology were fused into the images decorating the interior. It was an innovative way for Chigi to portray his role as a wealthy Roman patron while simultaneously communicating the mindset of an educated humanist. Thus, the Loggia of Galatea suggests the illusionary world of Renaissance Rome and the personal realm of a humanist.
The notion of Neo-Platonic love during the sixteenth century, in which the soul could transcend its bodily prison through the intellect, was a fashionable belief amongst the humanist elite.
In keeping with this contemporary notion of love, the pagan myth of Galatea and Polyphemus was reinterpreted into a humanist context, as seen in the adjacent frescoes by Sebastiano del Piombo and Raphael. The artists’ representation of the pagan narrative derived from literary sources, with which Chigi’s guests would have been familiar with, such as Ovid’s Metamorphosis and Poliziano’s Stanze per la Giostra.[1]
Polyphemus, circa 1512, Sebastiano del Piombo, Villa Farnesina, Rome. Source: Web Gallery of Art.
The unrequited love that the monster Polyphemus has for the sea nymph Galatea c as a Neo-Platonic metaphor for the human desire to overcome the earthly prison of the body (cacer terreno) to attain spiritual purity (amor celeste).[2] The different figures of the bestial monster and the divine nymph reflect the philosopher Marsilio Ficino’s description of the humanist soul, which seeks transcendence from earthly predicaments to a more spiritual state that is closer to God.
This transition from Polyphemus to Galatea is a visual hierarchy of the soul, from the secular to the spiritual. While the earthly Polyphemus desires physical love, the divine Galatea seeks spiritual bliss. As humanists, Chigi’s guests would aspire to conquer the beauty of Galatea. Alas, their mortal bodies cause them to remain grounded with Polyphemus. Through the use of pagan figures as agents of Neo-Platonic philosophy, the patron’s reflections of love manifested in a way that inventively engaged the elite audience of Renaissance Rome.
By examining the Sebastiano’s Polyphemus through the mindset of a Renaissance humanist, whose primary interest is the dignity of man, the viewer can empathize with the tormented Cyclops. Rather than a grotesque and fanciful figure, Polyphemus is presented more like a man who, despite being seated, implies forceful movement as every straining muscle confirms his agitation over Galatea’s rejection. His face is shadowed, blurring the brutality of his features. He is ominous while also in the depth of his emotions.[3]
Sebastiano invites the beholder to sympathize with the plight of Polyphemus and to anticipate his dreadful retribution through the murder of Galatea’s lover, Acis. Both Polyphemus and the viewer gaze longingly at the unattainable Galatea, who does not return the glance but instead looks upwards towards the heavens.
The figure of Galatea is another dimension of divine love via Neo-Platonism. She is the embodiment of ideal beauty. Although the fresco Triumph of Galatea was intended to be the complementary work to Sebastiano’s Polyphemus, Raphael’s powerful representation of the nymph gained admiration independently amongst the humanists as a hallmark for the aesthetics of ideal beauty.
By deliberately choosing a moment in the narrative that precedes the tragic murder of her lover, Raphael depicts Galatea with poise. Despite the surrounding torrent of motion, Galatea maintains a stance of triumph. She easily grasps the reins of the shell-chariot. Although in control, her demeanor is imbued with grazie that indicates submissive femininity.
The Renaissance belief in selecting and reconfiguring the best aspects of nature to convey beauty is underscored in Raphael’s letter to Castiglione in which he comments on his creation of the figure Galatea:
“To paint a figure truly beautiful, I should see many beautiful forms, with the further provision that you yourself be present to choose the most beautiful. But good judges and beautiful women being rare, I avail myself of certain ideas which comes to my mind” (1519).[4]
View of the Loggia di Galatea, Villa Farnesina, Rome. Source: Web Gallery of Art.
Such views of beauty reflect Neo-Platonic philosophy in which divine love is unattainable in the secular world. The secular and spiritual forms of love are contrasted in the details of marine life portrayed in Raphael’s Triumph of Galatea. The tritons (mythical creatures who are part man and beast) surround Galatea and overtake the other nymphs in lusty passion.
Meanwhile, the putti figure in the foreground directs the viewer’s attention to the dolphin pulling the chariot. Considered ‘lord of the sea,’ the dolphin is shown in the act of killing the octopus. Renaissance culture created a moral distinction between the dolphin, a symbol of virtue, and the octopus, a possessive creature of desire.[5]
The contrast between these two sea creatures amplifies the theme of rejecting the amorous advances by a suitor. While the muscular strength of the mythical Tritons allows them to overtake the delicate nymphs, the world of the sea demonstrates virtuous love destroying lust. [6] This complexity in the iconography of the fresco subtly reflects Chigi’s intelligent patronage of a humanist image. While the frescoes depicting the myth of Galatea and Polyphemus convey the notion of Neo-Platonic love within a pagan context, the ceiling of the loggia painted by Peruzzi utilizes astrology to represent the destined splendor of Chigi.
During the sixteenth century, astrology was a popular activity among the elite as a form of investigation into an individual’s character. Natal charts were often employed by prominent figures such as the pope and cardinals to determine their personalities. Chigi commissioned his own natal chart to be depicted on the ceiling, subtly symbolizing his magnificence. Although born under the sign of Leo in 1466, the astrology on the ceiling is that of the Virgo. According to the ancient astrologer Manilius, if born under the influence of Virgo,
“The child will cultivate a garden budding with bright flowers and slopes green with glass…His heart is set upon elegance, fashion, and the art of adornment, upon gracious living and the pleasure of the hour.”[7]
Since the predictions under Virgo coincided better with the facts of Chigi’s life, the patron chose to represent himself born under the Virgo sign to convey the persona in accordance with his elegant lifestyle[8]. It also justified extravagance as a part of fate.
In addition to providing commentary on Chigi’s character, the depicted horoscope also functioned as a form of entertainment.[9] The frescoes of the stars encouraged impromptu ‘readings’ by talented guests at Chigi’s lavish banquets. Parallel to the function of the whole of the loggia, Chigi’s natal chart is an imaginative conjecture intended to entertain and impress guests.
Frescoed ceiling of Loggia di Galatea, Villa Farnesina, Rome. Photographed by Federico Di Iorio. Source: GigaPan.
Instead of representing the sky as a cluster of stars, Peruzzi’s constellations personified mythological figures from classical antiquity. The two main constellations are reinterpreted myths with allegoric connotations of triumph. Nymph Callisto depicts the female deity as a maiden driving a chariot pulled by oxen, which refers to the constellation’s name of Chariot. [10] Similar to Galatea, Callisto holds the reins of the chariot effortlessly as her divine being provides easy control over the bestial oxen.
In the Myth of Perseus and the Gorgon, the stone figures watch in anticipation as Perseus prepares to decapitate Medusa. The original story states that Perseus cannot look directly at Medusa; however, in this portrayal, Perseus gazes at the monster before beheading. He is made an even more powerful hero than the traditional myth and subtly emphasizing Chigi’s authority.
The winged female floating above is usually identified as Fame. She could also be Virgo trumpeting Chigi’s fame, especially since Virgo is often a winged maiden dressed in a long white gown. [11] Despite the ambiguous identity of the white maiden, her role is clearly to direct the viewer’s attention to Chigi’s coat of arms in the center of the ceiling.
The heraldry contains a quiver of arrows with the motto “two for one,” indicating Chigi’s great generosity in repaying the favor and notorious redoubling of severity against enemies.[12] The constellations of Callisto and Perseus once again establish the triumph and magnificence of Chigi in a manner that stimulates conversation amongst guests while instilling respect for the Sienese banker.
The complex iconographic meaning of the fresco decorations of the Loggia of Galatea reveals a blending of pagan past and the humanist present. All of which is intended to celebrate Agostino Chigi’s status as a magnificent patron and spiritual humanist. Within the context of the suburban villa, these non-Christian landscapes were allowed to be imbued with pagan and Neo-Platonic themes, as exemplified in Sebastiano’s Polyphemus and Raphael’s Triumph of Galatea.
The patron’s birth chart is subsumed under the allegorized figures of Nymph Callisto and Myth of Perseus and the Gorgon. Peruzzi’s painted sky is clearly at the service of Chigi’s exalted status. Despite Chigi’s role as treasurer to the Vatican, he identified himself more with an ancient Pagan than with a Roman Christian. Although only separated by a river to the nerve center of Rome, the Loggia of Galatea provided a place to manifest the humanist spirit.
The painted interiors reveal another side to the soul of the Renaissance patron, his own Spiritus Mundi.
© Courtney Ahlstrom Christy 2014
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Sources
[1] Hulse, C. The Rule of Art Literature and Painting in the Renaissance, London, 1990, 97.
[2] Feghelm, D. I, Raphael, New York, 2004, 234.
[3] Ibid., 234.
[4] Ibid., 84.
[5] Kinkead, D. “An Iconographic Note on Raphael’s Galatea,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtland Institutes, 33, 1970, 315.
[6] Ibid., 315.
[7] Quinlan-McGrath, M. “The Astrological Vault of the Villa Farnesina Agostino Chigi’s Rising Sign” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 47, 1984, 105.
[8] Ibid., 105.
[9] Lippincott, K. “Two astrological Ceilings Reconsidered: The Sala di Galatea in the Villa Farnesina and the Sala del Mappamondo at Caprarola,” Journal at the Warburg and Courtland Institutes, 53, 1990, 196.
[10] Rowland, I. “Render Unto Caesar the Things Which are Casear’s: Humanism and the Arts in the Patronage of Agostino Chigi,” Renaissance Quarterly, 39, 1986, 676.
[11] Quinlan-McGrath, M. “The Astrological Vault of the Villa Farnesina Agostino Chigi’s Rising Sign” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 47, 1984, 98.
[12] Rowland, I. “Render Unto Caesar the Things Which are Casear’s: Humanism and the Arts in the Patronage of Agostino Chigi,” Renaissance Quarterly, 39, 1986, 676.